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OWLS AC. LEICESTER
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This article was submitted to this Web Site by S. Peretti of fitnessanalyst.com of London Macro Style Please note: The following macro cycle was produced and used by a specific Premiership footballer after having considered his own personal requirements, circumstances, and needs. As a result, this macro cycle should only be viewed as a guide to understanding how to formulate such a plan. Introduction Writing this introduction was without a shadow of doubt the most difficult part in this section. It proved to be so challenging simply because I had great difficulty in finding the right words with which to convey the importance of the subject matter. So let me put it this way. There is absolutely no difference between a fitness coach and a businessman, and there should be no difference between the two. A business man would never dream of starting a business involving vast amounts of money without a thorough cast iron business plan covering every single eventuality; nor should a fitness coach undertake his vital responsibility without the same level of preparation. Without a thorough, in-depth week-long analysis of the athlete's training methods and individual abilities using video footage, specialized testing equipment and advanced testing methods, culminating in the formation of the entire year plan, known as the macro cycle, the coach will simply make up strategies as he goes along, which means he will only be able to react to events, rather than being able to shape them. These shortcomings can only succeed in taking the athlete from one crisis to another, which will ultimately lead to failure through injury or through poor physical performance. This chapter will therefore focus on every single aspect of what goes into planning the training year. By the end you will be quite surprised by how much time, effort and analysis are needed to produce a plan that will achieve a successful outcome. One thing to mention is that after introducing the technical terminology, the correct terminology will then be used from that moment onwards. For example, now that we know that the macro cycle refers to the entire year training plan, so from now on we will refer it as the macro cycle. The Scenario You are a defender in premiership football, (professional athlete) earning £25,000 a week. It's the end of the season and yet again your team has just managed to avoid relegation. You yourself have been plagued by injury problems and questions have been asked about your strength, overall fitness and ability to last the tough physical demands of an entire season. As you leave the football ground for the long journey home you begin to reflect not only on yourself, but on the state of the entire team who all seem to have suffered the same problems as you. You ask yourself how is it possible that a team like yours with all the millions it spends on players and their wages, the massive new all- sweater stadium and the state of the art training facilities, is in the position it's in. At that moment the coach pulls over to the side of the road and a teammate thrusts a sheet of paper in your face. The gaffer then stands up and announces that the person videoing them all during training and competing last month was in fact the new fitness coach, who will be taking over from the physiotherapist at the start of next season regarding all aspects of the physical preparation of players. He informs you that everything on the sheet of paper you just received has to be followed to the letter during the 4 weeks before pre season training begins. Those that those failing to meet its requirements and the new standards will start the new season on the bench or they will be told that their contracts will be terminated. This club will no longer tolerate failure. The right position? Every time I ask the following questions I always get the same puzzled look, as I'm about to get now. Let's say that a 100m runner with a 100m time of 10.9 seconds comes to you for coaching. How do you know that this athlete is performing in the correct discipline that will enable them to attain success? How do you know whether they would be better suited to a short, intermediate or a longer distance? How do you know that the 100m sprinter that asks to be coached is capable of running any faster than they are doing now? An arrogant coach will immediately jump to the conclusion that all that is required are his / her training methods, methods which are tried, tested and guaranteed to bring out the very best in anyone willing to apply themselves. A good coach, on the other hand, will send any athlete, at the earliest possible age, to have a muscle fibre test. Muscle fibres, based on genetics, pre determine who is capable of developing the ability to run given distances and who, sadly, is not. This will save years of time, effort and performing the wrong training, which has been based upon assumptions rather than fact. Red slow twitch aerobic fibres Slow Oxidative Type 1 twitch muscle fibres contract efficiently in the presence of oxygen during aerobically based activities. Oxidative fibres have a high myoglobin content, which not only helps support their oxygen dependency, but also imparts a red colour to them, just as oxygenated haemoglobin is responsible for the red colour of arterial blood. Accordingly, these muscle fibres are referred to as red fibres. Slow twitch muscle fibres have the ability to use fat as a fuel source, but only during aerobic conditions. Fat cannot be mobilised for energy without the presence of oxygen and carbohydrate. Intermediate fibres Intermediate Slow Oxidative Type 2a twitch muscle fibres share characteristics of both other fibre types. They can adapt to use Atp like the fast twitch fibres, as well as having a high oxidative capacity like the slow twitch fibres. They contract more rapidly than the slow twitch fibres and can maintain the contraction for longer periods of time than the fast twitch muscle fibres. In humans, most of the muscles contain a mixture of all three types. The percentage of these various fibres not only differs between muscles within an individual, but also varies considerably among individuals. You cannot increase the total amount of muscle fibres, but you can increase the proportion of existing muscle fibres by manipulating training so that the intermediate muscle fibres adapt, and increase the proportion of either fast or slow twitch muscle fibres, which takes up to three weeks. White fast twitch anaerobic fibres Fast Glycolitic Type 2b twitch muscle fibres are used during short bursts of energy and physical activities that are predominantly anaerobic in nature, e.g. fast sprints. They contain an abundance of glycogen for energy. These Glycolitic fibres contain very little myoglobin and therefore are pale in colour, so they are sometimes called white fibres. Fast twitch muscle fibres use primarily the Atp - pcr and Lactic Acid energy systems. Therefore, the amount of each type of muscle fibre you possess may have important implications for weight training and certain sports. Although not everyone has the potential to perform at elite level, it is still possible to maximise the capacity of each of the three energy systems by adopting specific training strategies. People with a higher percentage of white fast twitch muscle fibres will automatically be good candidates for achieving results in strength, bodybuilding and power training strategies, whilst those with a greater proportion of red slow twitch muscle fibres are more likely to gain optimum results in endurance based activities. Training Gains During any 4 to 6 or 8 to 12 week meso cycle, regardless of whether you are training for bodybuilding, endurance, strength training, cardiovascular fitness, or fat burning, you must always use exactly the same exercises during the entire meso cycle so that you ensure maximum muscle fibre recruitment and that the body can learn the most effective way in which to perform these exercises, the most efficient way of processing nutrients and removing waste products, and also the best way of maintaining and recovering from the demands imposed. Apart from the type and length of training, nutrition and rest days, gym or endurance, gains will be highly dependent on the percentages of the relevant muscle fibre types that the trainer possess. After the first few weeks of training gains will be further increased as a result of the intermediate fibres adapting to the type of overload / training performed, thus becoming more efficient. As they do so they either convert to fast or slow twitch muscle fibres. This is why (allowing for all other factors that affect achieving gains, such as the type and length of training, nutrition and rest days) after the first 4 to 6 weeks, people with a large proportion of intermediate muscle fibres make surprisingly fast gains either in terms of endurance or muscular gains. The reason for this 4 to 6 week time scale is due to the fact that the first two weeks of a new training cycle is where the muscle fibres are learning to recruit the existing muscle fibers in the best sequential order before you can get the optimum performance from those muscles. It will then take a minimum of another two weeks for the body to learn to recruit the pink intermediate muscle fibers. The new maximum output of that new exercise is therefore going to be 4 to 6 weeks. The adaptation period will shorten for advanced trainers due their experience of training which conditions the muscles and energy pathways to recruit muscle fibres more effectively than trainers who have just started out. The exact length of the shortened time scale cannot be given, as this will be totally dependent on the type of training and the genetics of the individual in question. The average person possesses about 20% of intermediate fibres. Muscle fibre percentages It is important to note that the fibre percentages do not change, as a person grows older. You will have the same percentages of muscle fibres as a child that you will possess as an adult. Nor do the actual number of muscle fibres change. For example, if you have 10,000 muscle fibres before beginning a training programme, then you will still have 10,000 muscle fibres after the training programme. Muscle fibres get thicker, and the internal, not the overall, percentages change as the intermediate muscle fibres adapt and convert to either fast or slow twitch muscle fibres. The average person's muscle fibre percentages: 40% red slow twitch 20% pink intermediate twitch 40% white fast twitch With these muscle fibre percentages there is no chance of being a champion even with the best "chemical assistance". An elite Ethiopian runner's muscle fibre percentages: 80% red slow twitch 10% pink intermediate twitch 10% white fast twitch Daley Thompson's muscle fibre percentages: 10% red slow twitch 80% pink intermediate twitch 10% white fast twitch A good blend for middle distance runners: 70% red slow twitch 20% pink intermediate twitch 10% white fast twitch To have a chance of being a champion at a given sport you need to have more than 70% of the specific muscle fibres required for that sport, 70% representing a very borderline chance of being a champion. 75% plus is required to have any chance of being a champion. A closer look at muscle fibre conversion: What is the difference between having the following muscle fibre percentages when training to be a cross trainer or decathlete? 40% aerobic fibres / 20% intermediate / 40% anaerobic Or 10% aerobic fibres / 80% intermediate / 10% anaerobic It would seem that both percentages would give the same result as in both the examples above the conversion of pink intermediate muscle fibres would yield the same percentages of aerobic and anaerobic fibres. I.e. 50% aerobic fibres and 50% anaerobic fibres. The difference lies in the fact that the pink intermediate fibres are the fibres that can convert to being either aerobic or anaerobic fibres. This means that elite level athletes who are highly trained will be able to more quickly convert the 80% of pink muscle fibres to meet either aerobic or anaerobic needs, whereas in the first example there is only a potential of 20% intermediate fibres that will be available for conversion. Each specific muscle group that is used in the athlete's individual sport must be individually analysed in order to assess the athletes potential. Stage 1: The pre, during and post training/competition hydration and dietary schedule Before implementing any training programme we must begin by concentrating on the crucial 3 to 4 hour period leading up to, and the subsequent hours following, any form of training or competing in which athletes must adhere to strict nutritional and hydration guidelines. These guidelines take on paramount importance when you consider the fact that every 8-hour period of sleep represents an overnight fast in which the body uses significant amounts of carbohydrate stores. However, the benefit of this meal is solely dependent on athletes maintaining a nutritionally sound diet throughout each day. It cannot correct existing nutritional deficiencies or inadequate nutrient intake over prolonged periods of time. The 3 to 4 hour pre exercise meal It is absolutely vital to say that the benefit of this meal is solely dependent on athletes maintaining a nutritionally sound diet throughout each day. It cannot correct existing nutritional deficiencies or inadequate nutrient intake over prolonged periods of time. In the days leading up to this meal it is important to ensure that the body is fully hydrated whilst ensuring that there is no consumption of caffeine or alcohol. Ideally, these practices should be carried out as part of a normal lifestyle so that the body is always fully hydrated at all times, instead of trying to hydrate the body at the last minute. The aims of the 3 to 4 hour pre exercise meal: 1) To continue to fill and maximise glycogen stores. 2) To restore the liver glycogen especially after an overnight fast or if a morning training session has been undertaken. 3) To ensure that the athlete is fully hydrated. 4) Prevent hunger without causing nausea during training or competing and to prevent gastrointestinal stress. Practical advice – What to do: 1) The meal should contain 150 grams to 300 grams of low glycaemic index carbohydrates, which will allow for a steady rate rise in blood sugar levels, thus eliminating an insulin surge followed by a rebound low in blood sugar levels. The meal should be low in fat and also low in protein. For those who are unable to eat a large breakfast, 50 grams to 70 grams of a super manmade glucose polymer can be consumed in liquid form in addition to a reduced amount food. 2) The pre exercise meal should also include about 300 mL to 600 mL of an electrolyte fluid and then 150 mL of the same fluid every 15 to 20 minutes until about 45 minutes to 1 hour before exercise. This will leave time to go to the toilet prior to the start of the exercise. Practical advice – What not to do: 1) When adding fruit to this meal it is important to note that although the small intestine absorbs some fructose directly into the blood, it is the liver that must first convert fructose into glucose, which is carried out at a slow steady rate. This time delay means that fructose should be avoided after this meal as this time delay limits the availability of fructose as an energy source. In addition there is the fact that consuming high fructose beverages and foods causes significant gastrointestinal distress such as cramping, vomiting and diarrhoea, which in themselves can negatively impact on a person's exercise performance, which in turn further limits fructose's availability for energy. 2) You should never train within about 2 hours of eating anything apart from a small snack, which is eaten primarily to avoid hunger, but can also provide energy during exercise. After eating greater amounts there are serious implications as not only is the ability to train dramatically decreased, but there is also a real risk of a heart attack as the heart is not only being asked to pump the blood to the digestive system, but it is also being asked to supply blood to the muscles as well, which puts a massive strain on the heart. However, on the other end of the scale, high performance level athletes are able to reroute blood away from their skin to the point that they look very pale and very gaunt as they start to warm up. In these cases they are actually in peak physical condition as they have trained their body's to reroute as much blood as possible into the muscles from the skin and digestive system ready for the race. This can be clearly seen in 1500 and middle distance runners. With regards anyone, as much as 35% of the blood, which is utilized for digestive processes can be relocated to the muscles for an increase in performance output. This will leave approximately 5% of the body's blood supply for the digestive system, merely to maintain the functional output of that part of the body's systems. This makes eating before a workout or race even worse for elite level athletes as their heart rate will be elevated to a far greater degree. When 40% of the body's available blood is available for digestion, this leaves only a total of 60% for all other bodily activities – so, the body re-routes up to 35% to the working muscles, in order to enhance the delivery of nutrients and oxygen. Eating a large amount of food before a workout, therefore, is going to leave you with 35% less available blood for the working muscles, (due to the digestive system being occupied) and therefore your training is going to be less, performance wise, than if the extra blood was available for nutrient & oxygen delivery, due to the occupation of the digestive system processes. The conclusion to this is simple. The less you eat before training or competing, the more blood that will be available to go to the working muscles, and the greater your performance output will be. 3) You should not consume large quantities of protein either before, or just after, training or competing, as protein consumption accelerates dehydration during training. The end product of protein breakdown, known as urea, is eliminated by the kidneys and excreted in urine once it has been diluted. The greater the protein breakdown, the more urea is created and therefore more water is required for dilution. Athletes who train in a carbohydrate depleted state as a result of a poor diet, or through over training, will use more protein as a source of energy and will therefore suffer greater levels of dehydration. Fact: A stitch means you got it wrong A stitch is when you overload the body with too may carbohydrates too soon before exercising. The sudden rush of sugar makes a massive increase in insulin, which the liver must cope with. As a result the liver squeezes and this is what you feel when you get a stitch. You should not run through it, as the pain will compromise your ability to maintain good form and technique. The only answer is to stop and wait. Fact: Water loss equals a loss in performance Even though any amount of dehydration equals a loss in performance, for most athletes a 3% water loss impairs performance, with highly trained and acclimatised athletes able to tolerate between a 4% to 5% loss. The 30 minute pre exercise super carb drink A super man-made glucose polymer containing as close to 20 polymers as possible, consumed 30 minutes before exercise, such as Nature's Best, or Horleys, will release some glucose after approximately 5 minutes, more after approximately 30 to 40 minutes, with a final release after approximately 2 hours. These three stages of glucose release will ensure a steady rate of glucose into the blood during exercise, which will act as another energy reserve for the body to tap into without inducing a large increase in blood sugar, which would cause a rise in insulin with the subsequent rebound low. This strategy totally foregoes the need for more than 4 grams per 100 ml of carbohydrate during, say, half time of a rugby match, which will decrease performance due to a fall in water and electrolyte absorption. Please note: The strategy outlined above is based on the fact that this macro cycle has been formulated for the sport specific requirements and individual factors of the athlete in question. The athlete in question always suffered from a very great loss of fluid during the match through sweating, and so it was deemed essential to keep rehydration as the main priority during half time, and not carbohydrate replacement. Fact: Super man-made glucose polymers have a Higher Glucose content Pure glucose molecules contain only 1 molecule of glucose. Malt dextrin contains between 9 and 11 molecules of glucose in a long chain. Super man-made glucose polymers contain even more. In each chain of a super man-made glucose polymer there are between 19 and 20 molecules of glucose. This carbohydrate drink should be mixed according the following hyper hydration formulae. The 30-minute pre exercise hyper hydration drink Keeping the body hydrated is one of the most important aspects in achieving positive results through exercise. When you sweat you lose water and the mineral salts sodium, potassium and chlorine, collectively known as electrolytes. These dissolve in the body as electrically charged particles called ions which modulate fluid exchange within the bodies various fluid compartments allowing for a constant, well regulated exchange of nutrients and waste products between the cell and its external fluid environment. Much of the fluid lost through sweating comes from extra cellular fluid, predominantly from blood plasma, which therefore decreases the amount of nutrients and waste products that can pass to and from the cells via the blood plasma. This reduction of nutrients and waste products is the reason why a well-hydrated athlete will always function at a higher physiological and performance level than a dehydrated one. As you can see, replacing electrolytes and maintaining or restoring water levels is a major priority. There are two techniques that are used to overcome dehydration. These are rehydration and hyper hydration. Hyper hydration consists of taking the entire fluid requirement before exercise begins e.g.1 pint (15 fl oz) of cold water taken 30 minutes before a football or rugby match. Although this time period will allow the fluid to leave the stomach, it will not set off a diuretic action. However, it should be noted that these times may vary widely with individuals, and therefore, prior individual practice is required to obtain optimal times guaranteeing that no diuretic action will occur. Rehydration represents the ideal way of replacing the water and electrolytes that are lost through sweating by calculating the exact amount of water lost (where possible) and then replacing that water at regular 15 to 20 minute intervals. However, as it is not possible to successfully use this practice in many sports during a competitive event due to the inability of being able to distribute the rehydration drink at the correct intervals, it makes absolutely no sense at all using this practice during training where it is possible to implement. Whatever the sport undertaken, training must always exactly mimic what actually happens during an event, as the whole idea of training is to fully prepare the body to function at its highest physiological limits for the specific demands of the sport in which the athlete is competing. This is why it would be absolutely pointless adapting the body to replace water through a rehydration programme, when a completely different programme is to be used during competitive events. This concept of training, whereby you exactly mimic competing, is known as specifity and it is the basis upon which the whole philosophy of successful training is based. It is the key concept, which underpins every single decision that we make as fitness coaches, and is something that will be referred to many times throughout the site. Hyper hydration has two other main benefits. Hyper hydration delays dehydration and it increases sweating during exercise blunting the rise in body temperature. The 5-minute pre exercise drink Consuming 30 grams to 50 grams of a super man-made glucose polymer 5 minutes before exercise will maximise carbohydrate in the body, enabling this fuel to be used before the body has to use the carbohydrate stores within the muscles and liver. This will not induce a rise in insulin with the subsequent rebound low due to the sudden increase of sugar, provided that the person continues to warm up, as the adrenaline will stop the insulin from kicking in. The half time schedule As with everything, it is important to base any schedule during exercise on sound knowledge. However, it is also vital to adapt these principles to the exact requirements and attributes of the individual in question. What this means is that you must take into account what your body is telling you. For example, let me use the information already provided to illustrate the point. "The pre exercise meal should also include about 300mL to 600mL of an electrolyte fluid and then 150mL of the same fluid every 15 to 20 minutes until about 45 minutes to 1 hour before exercise. This will leave time to go to the toilet prior to the start of the exercise. " This information is all well and good, but the fact of the matter is that you have to put this information into practice and try it out for yourself in order to see if it works for you. You may find that the times given are too much, or simply not long enough. The same applies to the information below. You must base your on schedule on the facts and then try them out for yourself so that they meet your own individual, unique needs and sport specific requirements. One size does not fit all. You must do this analysis and experimental work well before any competitions so that you know that they are going to work, guaranteed. Practical advice – What to do: 1) Use a cool drink (15 to 20 degrees C).
2) Decide if you can rehydrate or would be better to hyper hydrate.
3) Replace the fluid losses during and between exercise with 150 mL to 300 mL of a hypotonic electrolyte
based drink when the atmospheric conditions make you sweat more and when the main aim is
rehydration (less than 4 grams of sugars and electrolytes per 100ml).
4) Replace the fluid losses during and between exercise with 150 mL to 300 mL of an isotonic electrolyte based drink when the atmospheric conditions make you sweat less and when the main aim is replacing carbohydrate (between 4 grams and 8 grams of sugars and electrolytes per 100ml). Very prolonged exercise may warrant a hypertonic drink (usually more than 8 grams to 10 grams of sugars and electrolytes per 100ml). The post exercise schedule The aims of the post exercise schedule: 1) To replenish the glycogen stores that were depleted during exercise as quickly as possible. 2) To replace the fluids lost during exercise as quickly as possible. 3) To concentrate on repairing muscle tissue damaged during exercise. Practical advice – What to do: 1) To increase glycogen replenishment after an intense carbohydrate-depleting bout of exercise beyond anything that can normally be achieved, you should immediately consume 75 grams to 100 grams of a super man-made glucose polymer in a drink, within a maximum of 2 to 3 minutes of exercise stopping. By doing so you will increase carbohydrate uptake by a staggering 28%, thus massively decreasing the amount of time that it will take you to recover from the exercise. This information comes from a 5-year study by the world-renowned Dunn Nutritional institute for research at Cambridge University. 2) 50 grams to 70 grams (2 oz to 3 oz) of moderate to high glycaemic carbohydrate should then be consumed every 2 hours for a total of 500g. 3) Always continue to take plenty of fluid after exercise, as once training has ceased, more blood will now be available again to go to the intestines to enhance water absorption, hence accelerating the replenishment of vital electrolytes and therefore facilitating the maximum amount of nutrients and waste products to and from the cells via the fluid environment. 4) As discussed above, the first aim directly following intensive exercise is to maximize glycogen replenishment after such a carbohydrate-depleting bout of exercise beyond anything that can normally be achieved. Research has indicated that you can increase the glycogen making process by mixing 0.5 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight along with a malt dextrin type recovery drink within 30 minutes of exercise. This would equate to 34 grams of protein if you were to weigh 150 lbs. The research reasons that this mixture induces a surge in insulin which accelerates the body's glycogen making motor by speeding up the movement of glucose and amino acids into the cells, and activating a special enzyme which is crucial to glycogen synthesis. There is also research to show that protein mixed with carbohydrate triggers the release of growth hormone and insulin, which are both, conducive to growth and recovery. Provided that you implement the Dunn Nutritional institute recommendations first, and immediately consume 75 grams to 100 grams of a super man-made glucose polymer in a drink, within a maximum of 2 to 3 minutes of exercise stopping, adding a second carbohydrate drink with the addition of the protein after about 20 minutes will not have a detrimental effect. Given that there are no detrimental effects, and given the possible gains of this second drink, this practice would seem prudent even though not yet proven as fact. Practical advice – What not to do: 1) Avoid alcohol at all costs during the recovery period after a training session. If you do not possess the will power to do this one simple thing, then you may as well quit whatever it is you are training for. You may quote the fact that there are plenty of Premier league footballers that drink after a match and they're on around £30.000 a week. All I can say is that these people are not under my control. If they were, they would be on the bench without pay until they re discovered the one simple truth. These people are incredibly lucky to be earning such vast amounts of money doing something they are passionate about. Most of the rest of us would love to be earning £30.000 every year, never mind of every week! 2) Avoid caffeine, high fat, processed convenience foods. The pre bedtime schedule Drink 50 grams to 70 grams of the super man-made glucose polymer mixed with a high quality protein shake about a half an hour before going to sleep. If consuming 50 grams to 70 grams of the super man-made glucose polymer interferes with your regular sleeping pattern, lower this dosage until your sleeping pattern returns to normal. Fact: Most muscle repair occurs whilst you sleep The vast majority of muscle repair occurs at night during deep orthodox sleep following 5 full cycles of deep orthodox sleep. Deep orthodox sleep occurs 4 to 5 times a night at most, and lasts only 20 minutes. The average person goes into deep orthodox sleep 3 times. The fantastic feeling of a good night's sleep comes when you go into deep orthodox sleep 4 to 5 times. Therefore, muscles are only fully repaired after two nights' sleep. Energy: how it all works Energy comes from carbohydrates, fat, protein and alcohol as they are all broken down to form the body's actual energy currency, which is Adenosine Tri Phosphate, or Atp. Atp consists of adenosine, which is the backbone, with three phosphate bonds attached to it. Energy is created and given off as heat when one of these phosphate bonds breaks off, which is why you feel warmer when you exercise. During aerobic exercise where the energy demands are low, the body has time to convert glucose or fat into Atp. A person's level of fitness will decide when and which energy source is used. Aerobic exercise produces 1 unit of glucose will produce a net yield of 36 units of Atp. 1 unit of fat will produce between 80 and 200 units of Atp. During anaerobic exercise where the energy demands are high, the body does not have time to convert fat into Atp, which is the reason why fat can never be used as an energy source during anaerobic exercise. Therefore, glucose is the only energy source available for conversion into Atp during anaerobic exercise. Anaerobic exercise produces 1 unit of glucose will produce 2 units of Atp. As a result of the lack of oxygen during anaerobic exercise, one unit of glucose is only partially broken down, which produces the by-product known as lactic acid. The three main energy systems Energy for exercise does not merely result from a series of energy systems that "switch on" and "switch off". Rather, a muscle's energy supply represents a smooth transition between anaerobic and aerobic sources, with considerable overlap from one source of energy transfer to another. The three main energy systems are: The Atp - pcr system Anaerobic lasting approximately 0 to 4.5 seconds. The lactic acid system Anaerobic lasting approximately 4.5 seconds to 90 seconds. Endurance, or power system Aerobic lasting approximately 90 seconds onwards. The apt–pcr system Atp-pcr stands for adenosine tri phosphate-phosphocreatine. This is a short-lived energy system, which can be thought of as a back up to the Atp system, which technically is the very first system the body uses. The Atp system is not counted as the first energy system as it runs out almost as soon as you move from rest to intense exercise. Once you suddenly go from rest to an intensive movement the Atp that is in the muscles runs out and in order to produce more Atp, the pcr-pcr system takes over. Energy is produced when one of the three phosphate bonds that are attached to adenosine breaks off, or "Fires". Once this has happened the Atp then becomes adenosine diphosphate, or ADP, which can no longer, or very rarely, be used for energy. Therefore, ADP has to rebond, or reattach itself to another phosphate bond to reconvert itself back into Atp, ready to be used again for energy. This is where the Atp-pcr system takes over from the Atp system. The Atp-pcr system contains the high-energy phosphate bond called phosphocreatine, which is also known as creatine, or creatine phosphate, which the ADP attaches to in order to be able to reconvert back to Atp. In the body there is only enough phosphocreatine to last about 4.5 seconds during intensive exercise. This is why people supplement with creatine. However, this only works in people who have a high proportion of white fast twitch, type two, muscle fibres as these fibres are the ones that will use the Atp as an energy source. These fibres store about four to six times more phosphocreatine than Atp which serves as the cells' energy reservoir to provide rapid phosphate-bond energy to resynthesize Atp from adp which is more rapid than Atp resynthesize from glycol sis. The lactic acid system The lactic acid system is also anaerobic and takes over from the Atp-pcr system. Here the fuel is now glycogen, which is only partly being broken down as a result of there being no oxygen being present. The resulting lactic acid builds up, preventing muscles contracting, known as oxygen debt, so forcing the person to slow down or stop. When there is enough oxygen, lactic acid can be converted, by the same or neighbouring cells within the same muscle, into pyruvic acid, which can in turn be converted back into Atp. Alternatively lactic acid can go to the liver to be converted back into glucose and then sent back into the bloodstream to be used again. The endurance or power system This system takes over from the lactic acid system after about 90 seconds, and because the body has more time as the energy demands have been reduced, it can now convert Atp from fat, carbohydrate or protein, without leaving behind any by-products as these are expelled through the lungs (H20 and Co2). The body can also reconvert the lactic acid that built up in the muscles back into its original source of glycogen. Stage 2: The basic training format Every training session must follow a basic format in order to obtain maximum results and to reduce the risk of injury. Therefore, the overall format of any training day, regardless of content, is the very first thing that must bear thorough examination when analyzing a typical training day. The basic training format that should take place is as follows: 1) Warm up: An appropriate warm up lasting at least 10 minutes, set in accordance to the exercise that is to be undertaken. 2) Mobility work: Mobility work is a vital component, which is required to warm up the joints and activate the Synovial fluid, which will fully lubricate the joint and ensure full range of movement within the joint. Mobility work is performed before every stretch. 3) Pre workout stretch: The pre workout stretch consists of at least two sets of ten seconds using a specifically individualised programme. Each subsequent stretch should be taken a bit further, stretching the same body part twice in a row before swapping over to the opposite side. 4) Main workout: What ever is planned for the session 5) Mobility work: Mobility work is a vital component which is required to warm up the joints and activate the Synovial fluid which will fully lubricate the joint and ensure full range of movement within the joint. Mobility work is performed before every stretch. 6) Post workout stretch:
In the gym, the post workout stretch is carried out immediately upon completion of having worked any given
body part using a specifically individualised programme. At least two sets of thirty seconds each must be
performed, stretching a bit further during the subsequent set, and stretching the same body part twice in a
row before swapping over.
7) Cool down: An appropriate cool down lasting at least 10 minutes, set in accordance to the exercise that has been undertaken. Stage 3: Testing It is essential that testing be undertaken at the very start of any training programme with the athlete then being re-tested every 8 to 12 weeks, keeping the time and conditions of the tests exactly the same so that the effectiveness of the training programme can be carefully evaluated. A successful fitness coach can use these results as an excellent way of motivating athletes by means of using simple graphs to clearly demonstrate the gains made over the 8 to 12 week period. A full testing programme can be found under the section on testing. Stage 4: The type of training The very first question that must always be asked when deciding upon any form of training is, what exactly is the athlete is trying to achieve. Once we know what the goals are, we can then set about analyzing the training methodology that needs to be implemented to achieve these goals. In the gym So you've done your warm up, what next? You head straight for the weights and start pumping iron. So how do you know how much to lift, and how many times to lift it? Gone are the days when you just pick up a weight that feels good, and then start pumping out endless combinations of sets and reps. In order to achieve any level of sustained increase in muscular fitness, strength or increased muscular development, you must ensure that you do not either under-train, or indeed over-train your body, but ensure that your workouts are structured to provide you with what is known as progressive overload. Progressive overload refers to the fact that muscles have to be continually overloaded, by continually increasing the amount of weight used or by increasing the intensity of the workout, in order for the muscles to continually grow. To ensure that you work at the correct level of resistance to achieve your goals, it is best to train at a percentage of your power maximum. This weight is known as your 1 repetition power maximum, or (1rpm). To obtain your 1 rpm you begin by lifting a weight for one rep in comfort, and then add more, and more weight in stages after each single repetition until you reach a point of failure. The last weight you successfully lifted in strict style is your 1 rpm. Extreme care should be taken when undertaking this test so that injuries are not sustained. Once you have tested your power maximums on the exercises you intend to use, you will be able to use the sets and repetitions table, known as the wabba workload, shown below to tell you how many times you should lift a given percentage of your power maximum to obtain the result you require. This takes out all the guesswork that traditionally has been the background of the weight-training arena. If you cannot achieve the sets and reps recommended for your desired training result, then take some weight off the bars or machine that you are using to allow you compete your task within that specific set and repetition range. Never just do fewer sets or reps, as this will simply result in you not achieving your desired goals. Power maximums should be tested every 8 to 12 weeks as your natural strength levels will have increased, otherwise you will be training at a lesser level of intensity than you were before, which will ultimately take you out of the training zone that you require. The facts behind weight training Intensity is the key: Progressive overload builds muscles and that's a fact. But this does not mean lifting big weights even if you are lifting them using perfect form. Intensity is the key. The greater the intensity, the greater the progressive overload and the greater the results will be, as the decrease in rest between sets forces muscles to work harder whilst in partial recovery. Without intensity, you can lift as much as you like and you will still only obtain very minimal results as the progressive overload principal only works when muscles are hot. Therefore, it is absolutely vital that correct rest periods are given. 3 minutes' or more rest means that you will obtain very little progressive overload and thus will seriously reduce results. Normal bodybuilders can aim for 1 minute's rest between sets, whilst elite level trainers can go to a maximum of 30 seconds. However, these times will be dependent on the type of training undertaken, the desired training outcome, and individuals abilities. For example, for an out and out mass building cycle, which is not intended to increase muscular endurance, you may wish to take longer rest periods than 30 seconds or 1 minute in order to allow the lactic acid build up to ease off and begin to disperse from the areas being worked, ready to put all out effort into the next set. On the other hand, experienced endurance trainers would start off with 1 minute rest between sets and then gradually decrease this rest time or go for sport specific rest periods to increase the lactic acid build up so that they develop a greater tolerance to that lactic build up. The basic way of increasing intensity using weights is done by pyramiding training i.e. where the weight goes up as the reps come down. This system of training is the standard as muscles respond much better to this progressive overload training, rather than simply performing all sets and reps going straight into 85% of your 1 rpm. As well as being a poor way of training, this method of all out blood and guts training is also a sure fire way of producing big injuries in very short spaces of time due to the immense stresses that are immediately placed on the joints, tendons, ligaments and muscles. There are many advanced training strategies, outlined in this section that can be used to further increase the intensity of a workout. One of these strategies is known as pre exhaust training, which involves training a given muscle with an isolation exercise before the main building compound movement. Either completing all the isolation exercises or then moving onto the compound exercises can do Pre exhaust training, or it can be done by performing one isolation exercise which is then directly followed by a compound movement with no rest in between. This second method is the true type of pre exhaust, whereas the first method is a sort of halfway house that less advanced trainer's use. The philosophy behind the pre exhaust and the other advanced training strategies is that, by pre fatiguing muscles before the main building exercises, the primary muscles being worked (the main muscles being worked) are taken beyond their natural point of failure. This makes those primary muscles work a lot harder because, once you pre fatigue muscles with these strategies, other muscles then help the main muscles being worked taking these primary muscles beyond the point of failure. For example, let's say we were to perform flat dumbbell flyes directly followed by flat bench press. By the time you get to the bench press, the pectoral muscles are already pre fatigued. Hence, the shoulders and triceps come in to help to keep the chest working, taking the chest beyond its point of failure. Yes, you will lift less, but the intensity will be greatly increased, greatly increasing the results. Another benefit of using the pre exhaust method is that it also thoroughly warms the joints, tendons, ligaments and muscles before the main workload, reducing the risk of injury. Here is a basic pre exhaust strategy: All strategies and training would start with a warm up set of 20 reps using a very lightweight. The first two sets of 12 and 10 reps can essentially be viewed as a primary warm up to the remaining sets of 8 or more. Even the most advanced trainers perform 4-6 sets whilst still using the pyramid principle throughout. The various options are just that, options. 12 - 10 - 8 - 8 reps of isolation First, or directly followed by 12 - 10 - 8 - 8 reps of compound Here is an advanced pre exhaust strategy: 12 - 10 - 8 - 8 - 8 - 8 reps of isolation First, or directly followed by 12 - 10 - 8 - 8 - 8 - 8 reps of compound In both these examples it is possible to squeeze another 2 reps on the 3rd set when performing 4 sets, or another 2 reps on the 3rd and 4th set when performing 6 sets, provided that this does not stop you performing the remaining essential building sets to 8 reps keeping you in the bodybuilding training zone. Advanced trainers can also add advanced training strategies to the last set of all out blood and guts failure to further increase the intensity and overload. One option, among many, could be going to complete failure and then performing a forced rep followed by multi poundage set. This is intensity. Intensity is the key. The choices you make must be based upon your level of skill, strength, muscular endurance, nutritional programme, "chemical assistance", and ability to recover. Increasing the weight so that the last 2 or 3 sets go below 8 reps is only acceptable if by doing so it increases the total volume of the workout beyond what would have been achieved by sticking to the prescribed sets and reps range. Unless the increased weight, and decreased rep range increases the total volume, then going below 8 reps will either make you stronger or it will take you into the power lifting zone. This means that you will not achieve your goals, which in this case is bodybuilding. You must also ensure that you do not allow the last 2 sets to fall below 8 reps by having increased the first 2 sets beyond the 8 rep range, as this will also have taken you out of the bodybuilding zone. Fact: Hold the squeeze and get less results Isometric muscle contraction, i.e. a static muscle contraction, floods the muscles with lactic acid. The more the lactic acid, the sooner you will reach the point in which you can't lift any more. This is the reason why when weight training, you do not hold the squeeze at the top of the movement. Fact: Keep an eye on the clock The maximum amount of time you would spend on any intense anaerobic training is 40 to 60 minutes, as by 65 to 70 minutes you will have run out of fuel. Heart rates Exactly the same principle of working within given pre-set zones applies to training to lose body fat or training to improve fitness levels. Although highly accurate, assessing exercise intensity by direct oxygen uptake requires laboratory measurement. Therefore, a more practical alternative uses heart rate to classify exercise by intensity, and individualises aerobic training to keep pace with improving fitness. To achieve this you either have to use exercise equipment that incorporates a heart rate monitor, or you will have to buy your own. The basic formula required to ensure that you are training at the desired level to achieve your goals is given as: Maximum heart rate = 220 - your age multiplied by 60% = Fat burning zone with some improvements in fitness Or 75% = Basic fitness zone with some fat loss Or 85% = Sub maximal zone Aim to work within a target zone of 5 beats either side of these zones as it is not possible to stick to exactly each of these given zones. Take care when performing the sub maximal training zone as from 85% onwards the heart rate can very easily shoot up quickly. Failure to train at these zones = you will not achieve your specific goals The basic formula of 220 - age multiplied by x% is not used for elite level athletes. Instead we use the Karvonem formula, which is a much more specific and intense method of heart rate training that elevates the athlete's heart rate beyond anything achieved, by using the regular formula. The Karvonem formula must only be used for highly advanced CV training in athletes who have already had a great deal of experience in intense heart rate training. Calculating the Karvonem heart rate zones: Using a 40-year-old athlete competing for the veterans' Olympic games as an example, with a resting heart rate of 50 beats per minute, the Karvonem heart rate is calculated as follows: Step 1: 220 - age = maximum heart rate = 180 beats per minute. Step 2: Now subtract the athlete's resting heart rate from 180. 180 - 50 = 130 beats per minute. This new figure of 130 beats per minute is known as the heart rate reserve. Step 3: Now you train at a range of either 70%, or 85% of the heart rate reserve and then add the Resting heart rate figure back on. 70% of 130 = 91 beats per minute + 50 = 141 beats per minute 85% of 130 = 111 beats per minute + 50 = 161 beats per minute Some trainers evaluate the athlete's maximum heart rate by making the athlete run or swim at maximum speed for 3 to 4 four minutes. The Karvonem formula eliminates the need to do this as, at best, there will only be a difference of one or two beats per minute difference between the Karvonem formula and the result of the all out test, which is neither here nor there. In fact the all out test can be highly inaccurate, as it requires the athlete to run or swim at their absolute maximum. If the athlete does not run at exactly 100%, due to fatigue or injury for the allocated time, then the result will not be very inaccurate. Heart rate recovery times The way in which the heart recovers following exercise is the method used to test the heart's fitness. The conditions for this test are that the heart rate measurement must begin immediately following exercise, after having gradually slowed down the athlete, with the person laid down, motionless and silent during the recovery period. Target times Under 112 beats within the first minute = excellent for the general sports people. Under 100 beats within the first minute = good for elite athletes. Under 85 beats within the first minute = excellent for elite level athletes. Fact: Stick to those heart rates, or make fewer gains The body only becomes anaerobic at 100% of the maximum heart rate (mhr). From 60% mhr and leading up to 75% mhr, the body mainly uses fat as the energy source with some additional carbohydrates usage. 60% mhr represents the zone at which fat usage is at its highest. The closer you get to 75% mhr the less the fat usage and the greater the carbohydrate usage. At 75% mhr and from 75% mhr to 80% mhr, the body mainly uses carbohydrate as the energy source with some additional fat usage. After 80% the body only uses carbohydrate as the energy source. 90% mhr represents the body's anaerobic threshold and, although still aerobic, the body begins to struggle to utilize oxygen from 90% mhr onwards. Sub maximal training is designed to keep the body fully aerobic whilst maintaining the heart at safe levels. The absolute maximum you would therefore train an athlete at for improving cardiovascular fitness is 89% of the heart rate maximum. When sport specifically training to improve the Atp-pcr system you would train at 100% of the heart rate maximum. Fact: Intense CV training can build muscles Most bodybuilders believe that intense cardiovascular training burns muscles. This is simply not true. The average human capillary count is 585 per square millimetre. An elite athlete has an average capillary count of 820 per square millimetre. The conclusion is simple. Intense cardiovascular training does not burn muscles; it actually increases the size of muscles when performed in conjunction with an appropriate bodybuilding programme. More capillaries = More blood travelling into the muscles = More nutrients and more oxygen travelling into the muscles = A greater capacity for the removal of waste products from the muscles = A person can train more intensely = A person can train longer = A person has a greater capacity for recovery = More results Depending on the individual athlete, it will take 2 to 6 months to achieve this capillary increase. An added advantage of intense cardiovascular training is that the stroke volume of the heart can increase from an average of 85 millilitres per beat to up to 120 millilitres per beat. Stage 5: The rationale for using the macro cycle It is important to begin by defining the concepts of the macro cycle so that we can understand the rationale for using this principle as the basis upon which the entire training year is planned. Once the weeklong analysis of each individual athlete has taken place, the macro cycle can then be fractioned into component periods of grouped weeks, known as meso cycles. This process provides the means to progressively improve the athlete's physical performance, prevent over training and alter the variety of workouts by enabling the fitness coach to directly manipulate training intensity, volume, frequency, sets, repetitions and rest periods. This system of manipulating training is known as per iodisation. Per iodisation reduces any negative effects from over training, or "staleness" and enables athletes to achieve "peak" performance to coincide with the relevant competition phases by organising training into phases of different types of exercise done at varying intensities and volumes for a specific time period. In essence the training model used decreases the training volume, whilst at the same time increasing the training intensity as the programme progresses. Meso cycles last somewhere between 4 and 6 weeks in length, at the very least, and up to 10 to 12 weeks at the very most, both consisting of the same style of training techniques. The time periods quoted are based on the fact that it takes 4 to 6 weeks to obtain a training response with the training response peaking at 10 weeks, and then tapering off dramatically after 12 weeks. The only exception to this rule is if there is a sport specific reason why two of the same 10 to 12 week meso cycles have to be put together. Stage 6: The individual components of the macro cycle The off season period Generally, for most sports athletes the off-season is utilised as a recuperation phase, which runs over a period of 1 to 6 weeks at a time. This is often referred to as an "active rest", where the athlete is still involved in some physical activity, which is totally different to their main sport. Active rest is given to keep the athlete's fitness level reasonably high and cut down the chance of any substantial loss in the development gains that were achieved in the previous training year. To ensure this, both the key components of aerobic and anaerobic fitness training would be involved, but at a low level of intensity and volume. This off-season is excellent for developing stronger mental skills to enhance the will-to-win factor. The 1st meso cycle, which runs for 4 weeks from the start of May to the start of June, is therefore used as active rest. In the case of our footballer, the active rest given is a stationary exercise bicycle with moving handles. There are two reasons for choosing this form of active rest. The first reason is that all the stresses that result from the constant pounding as the body makes contact with the ground are completely eliminated. The second reason being that this form of exercise closely mimics the motion of running which satisfies the requirements of the exercise training specificity principle. Fact: The exercise training specificity principle Aerobic or anaerobic fitness obtained from one form of exercise does not transfer to other forms of exercise, unless the musculature used in both forms of exercise is virtually identical. For example, aerobic fitness obtained through swimming does not transfer to other forms of aerobic exercise such as running, because although your heart will have become fitter, the muscles that you used when swimming, although similar, are used in a completely different way from the way in which the muscles are used when running. Therefore, if one day you decided to go for a jog and managed to run only one mile, you would still only manage to run one mile after having religiously dedicated yourself to a 12 week fitness training programme in the swimming pool, even though both forms of exercise use identical energy systems. This is because, although your hearts fitness will have improved over the twelve-week period, you did not train the muscles used when running to be able to run further than one mile. The conclusion to this is simple. Specific exercise elicits specific training effects, known as The Said Principle, or, specific adaptations to imposed demands. Therefore testing to evaluate improvements in aerobic capacity and exercise performance must be carried out using exactly the same exercise that the individual trained with, as using a dissimilar exercise will show little or no improvement. Fact: The reversibility principle The benefits of aerobic exercise begin to rapidly wear off after 48 hours. After only a week or two of de- training, measurable reductions occur in physiological function and exercise capacity, with a total loss of training improvements within seven months. Transitional phase Whenever a training cycle begins, or when moving from one concept of training to another, i.e. from strength to power, or say, from intermediate Plyometrics training to maximal Plyometrics training, there must be a changeover period of two weeks whilst the body adjusts to the new training schedule through the process of adaptation. Extra care must be taken when, due to the demands placed on the time table of some sports, only a transitional period of one week can be given, as is the case in football. During this transitional phase, it is vital to blend the exercises and the levels of intensity from one phase to another so that there is no largely noticeable increase in the workload from one week to the next. This approach ensures that the athlete both minimises the risk of injury from the increased, or different, type of workload, whilst at the same time benefiting from the theory of progressive overload, rather than losing the training edge, which happens when a training programme does not maintain a steady level of consistency. The transitional phase is not counted as part of the meso cycle that directly follows it. The pre-season period Depending on the sport, a training period of usually 12 weeks is often used as the base plan for this phase of training. Here the emphasis is only on conditioning the body and preparing it for the main work to come during the on season. The work output volume here is high, with the intensity remaining low. You would usually begin the 1st meso cycle following active rest with a general all over body muscular tone up and a basic fitness programme. Absolutely no consideration is given to the exercise specificity principles during this basic tone up programme. With regards to the basic fitness programme above that is performed in the morning, each athlete should test to see how long he or she could cycle for at 75% of his or her heart rate maximum. Once this has been established you can then increase each subsequent exercise bout by 1 to 2 minutes. This may not sound like much but over a six-week training period of thrice weekly running, it equates to an extra 18 to 36 minutes. The exercise bike with moving handles is the preferred fitness training option in order to reduce the stresses on the muscles, joints, ligaments, and tendons. FOR MORE FROM THIS SECTION PLEASE VISIT WWW.FITNESSANALYST.COM
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